Emergency Birth Control Pills: A Bibliography of Research & Findings

Educating and empowering women in South Carolina by increasing awareness of and access to emergency birth control

Emergency Birth Control Pills: A Bibliography of Research & Findings

This bibliography provides a guide to much of the research literature on hormonal emergency birth control pills. The citations are arranged in six sections: 1) literature reviews as well as guidelines and recommendations from medical organizations; 2) action and efficacy; 3) side effects, drug interactions, and health concerns; 4) women’s knowledge, attitudes, and behaviors related to emergency birth control; 5) health services and access to emergency birth control; and 6) general overviews, cost studies, and miscellaneous studies.

1. Literature Reviews, Guidelines & Recommendations
[This section contains 16 citations.]

American Academy of Pediatrics, Committee on Adolescence. Emergency contraception: policy statement. Pediatrics 2005; 116:1026-1035.
American Academy of Pediatrics, Klein JD and the Committee on Adolescence. Adolescent pregnancy: current trends and issues. Pediatrics 2005; 116:281-286.
American College of Obstetricians & Gynecologists. Emergency contraception. ACOG Practice Bulletin: Clinical Management Guidelines for Obstetrician-Gynecologists 2005 (No. 69): 9 p.
American College of Obstetricians & Gynecologists. Statement on Contraceptive Methods. Washington, DC: 1998.
American Medical Association, Council on Medical Service. Access to Emergency Contraception [CMS Report 1-I-00] Chicago, IL: 2000.
American Medical Association. Strategies for the Treatment and Prevention of Sexual Assault. Chicago: 1995.
American Pharmacists’ Association. Emergency Contraception: the Pharmacist’s Role, updated edition [APhA Special Report]. Washington, DC: 2004.
Cheng L, Gülmezoglu AM, Van Oel CJ, Piaggio G, Ezcurra E, Van Look PFA. Interventions for emergency contraception: review. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 2004; (3): CD001324.
Conard LAE, Gold MA. Emergency contraceptive pills: a review of the recent literature. Current Opinion in Obstetrics & Gynecology 2004; 16:389-395.
Ellertson C, Shochet T, Blanchard K, Trussell J. Emergency contraception: a review of the programmatic and social science literature. Contraception 2000; 61:145-186.
Fasoli M, Parazzini F, Cecchetti G, La Vecchia C. Post-coital contraception: an overview of published studies. Contraception 1989; 39:459-468. [Erratum in Contraception 1989; 39:699.]
International Consortium for Emergency Contraception. Emergency Contraceptive Pills: Medical and Service Delivery Guidelines, 2nd edition. Washington, DC: Author, 2004 (20 p.); http://www.cecinfo.org/publications/PDFs/resources/MedicalServiceDeliveryGuidelines_Eng.pdf.
International Planned Parenthood Federation. IMAP statement on emergency contraception. IPPF Medical Bulletin 1994; 28:1-2.
Society for Adolescent Medicine. Provision of emergency contraception to adolescents: position paper. Journal of Adolescent Health 2004; 35:66-70.
World Health Organization. Emergency Contraception: a Guide for Service Delivery. Geneva, Switzerland: 1998.
World Health Organization. Medical Eligibility Criteria for Contraceptive Use. 3rd edition. Geneva, Switzerland: 2004.

2. Action and Efficacy
[This section contains 112 citations.]

Alvarez F, Faundes A, Johannson E, Coutinho E. Blood levels of levonorgestrel in women following vaginal placement of contraceptive pills. Fertility & Sterility 1983; 40:120-123.
Arowojolu AO, Okewole IA, Adekunle AO. Comparative evaluation of the effectiveness and safety of two regimens of levonorgestrel for emergency contraception in Nigerians. Contraception 2002; 66:269-273.[Erratum in Contraception 2003; 67(2): 165.]
Ashok PW, Stalder C, Wagaarachchi PT, Flett GM, Melvin L, Templeton A. A randomised study comparing a low dose of mifepristone and the Yuzpe regimen for emergency contraception. British Journal of Obstetrics & Gynaecology 2002; 109:553-560.
Back DJ, Grimmer SF, Rogers S, Stevenson PJ, Orme ML. Comparative pharmacokinetics of levonorgestrel and ethinyl-oestradiol following intravenous, oral, and vaginal administration. Contraception 1987; 36:471-479.
Bagshaw SN, Edwards D, Tucker AK. Ethinyl oestradiol and D-norgestrel is an effective emergency postcoital contraceptive: a report of its use in 1,200 patients in a family planning clinic. Australia & New Zealand Journal of Obstetrics & Gynaecology 1988; 28:137-140.
Brito KS, Bahamondes L, Nascimento JAA, de Santis L, Munuce MJ. The in vitro effect of emergency contraception doses of levonorgestrel on the acrosome reaction of human spermatozoa. Contraception 2005; 72:225-228.
Centre for Review and Dissemination. The Yuzpe regimen of emergency contraception: how long after the morning after [abstract 961127] Database of Abstracts of Reviews of Effectiveness, 1998.
Chaffin CL, Heimler I, Rawlins RG, Wimpee BAB, Sommer C, Hutz RJ. Estrogen receptor and aromatic hydrocarbon receptor in the primate ovary. Endocrinology 1996; 5:315-321.
Chandrasekhar YA, Melner MH, Nagalla SR, Stouffer RL. Progesterone receptor, but not estradiol receptor messenger ribonucleic acid is expressed in luteinizing granulose cells and the corpus luteum in rhesus monkey. Endocrinology 1994; 135:307-314..
Chang MC, Harper MJK. Effects of ethinyl estradiol on egg transport and development in the rabbit. Endocrinology 1966; 78:860-872.
Clarke CL, Sutherland RL. Progestin regulation of cellular proliferation. Endocrinology Reviews 1990; 11:266-301.
Creinin MD. A reassessment of efficacy of the Yuzpe regimen of emergency contraception. Human Reproduction 1997; 12:496-498.
Croxatto HB, Brache V, Pavez M, Cochon L, Forcelledo ML, Alvarez F, Massai R, Faundes A, Salvatierra AM. Pituitary-ovarian function following the standard levonorgestrel emergency contraceptive dose or a single 0.75-mg dose given on the days preceding ovulation. Contraception 2004; 70:442-450.
Croxatto HB, Devoto L, Durand M, Ezcurra E, Larrea F, Nagle C, Ortiz ME, Vantman D, Vega M, von Hertzen H. Mechanism of action of hormonal preparations used for emergency contraception: a review of the literature. Contraception 2001; 63:111-121.
Croxatto HB, Fuentealba B, Brache V, Salvatierra AM, Alvarez F, Massai R, Cochon L, Faundes A. Effects of the Yuzpe regimen, given during the follicular phase, on ovarian function. Contraception 2002; 65:121-128.
Croxatto HB, Ortiz ME, Muller AL. Mechanisms of action of emergency contraception. Steroids 2003; 68:1095-1098.
Dickman Z. Postcoital contraceptive effects of medroxyprogesterone acetate and oestrone in rats. Journal of Reproduction & Fertility 1973; 32:65-69.
Dierschke DJ, Chaffin CL, Hutz RJ. Role and site of estrogen action in follicular atresia. Trends in Endocrinology & Metabolism 1994; 5:215-219.
Dierschke DJ, Yamaji T, Karsch FJ, Weick RJ, Weiss G, Knobil E. Blockade by progesterone of estrogen-induced LH and FSH release in rhesus monkey. Endocrinology 1973; 92:1496-1501.
Dixon GW, Schlesselmann TJ, Ory HW, Blye RB. Ethinyl estradiol and conjugated estrogens as postcoital contraception. JAMA 1980; 244:1336-1339.
Duffy DM, Hess DL, Stouffer RL. Acute administration of a 3 beta-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase inhibitor to rhesus monkeys at the mid-luteal phase of the menstrual cycle: evidence for possible autocrine regulation of the primate corpus luteum by progesterone. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism 1994; 79:1587-1594.
Durand M, del Carmen Cravioto M, Raymond EG, Duráan-Sáchez O, de la Cruz-Hinojosa M, Castell-Rodríguez A, Schiavon R, Larrea F. On the mechanisms of action of short-term levonorgestrel administration in emergency contraception. Contraception 2001; 64:227-234.
Durand M, Seppala M, del Carmen Cravioto M, Koistinen H, Koistinen R, González-Macedo J, Larrea F. Late follicular phase administration of levonorgestrel as an emergency contraceptive changes the secretory pattern of glycodelin in serum and endometrium during the luteal phase of the menstrual cycle. Contraception 2005; 71:451-457.
Ellertson C, Evans M, Ferden S, Leadbetter C, Spears A, Johnstone K, Trussell J. Extending the time limit for starting the Yuzpe regimen of emergency contraception to 120 hours. Obstetrics & Gynecology 2003; 101:1168-1171.
Ellertson C, Webb A, Blanchard K, Bigrigg A, Haskell S, Shochet T, Trussell J. Modifying the Yuzpe regimen of emergency contraception: a multicenter randomized controlled trial. Obstetrics & Gynecology 2003; 101:1160-1167.
Food & Drug Administration. Prescription drug products: certain combined oral contraceptives for use as postcoital emergency contraception. Federal Register 1997; 62:8609.
Fuentealba B, Nieto M, Croxatto HB. Progesterone abbreviates the nuclear retention of estrogen receptor in the rat oviduct and counteracts estrogen action on egg transport. Biology of Reproduction 1988; 38:63-69.
Gainer E, Méry C, Ulmann A. Levonorgestrel-only emergency contraception: real-world tolerance and efficacy. Contraception 2001; 64:17-21
Gemzell-Danielsson K, Marions L. Mechanisms of action of mifepristone and levonorgestrel when used for emergency contraception. Human Reproduction Update 2004; 10:341-248.
Glasier A, Baird D. The effects of self-administering emergency contraception. New England Journal of Medicine 1998; 339:1-4.
Glasier A, Thong KJ, Dewar M, Mackie M, Baird DT. Mifepristone (RU486) compared with high-dose estrogen and progesterone for emergency postcoital contraception. New England Journal of Medicine 1992; 327:1041-1044.
Greb RR, Heikinheimo O, Williams RF, Hodgen GD, Goodman AL. Vascular endothelial growth factor in primate endometrium is regulated by estrogen-receptor and progesterone-receptor ligands in vivo. Human Reproduction 1997; 12:1280-1292.
Greenwald GS. Species differences in egg transport in response to exogenous estrogen. Anatomical Record 1967; 157:163-172.
Grou F, Rogrigues I. The morning-after pill – how long after? American Journal of Obstetrics & Gynecology 1994; 171:1529-1534.
Guillebaud J. Time for emergency contraception with levonorgestrel alone. Lancet 1998; 352:416-417.
Harper CC. Interference with early pregnancy in rats by estrogen: mechanism of action of dienestrol. Anatomical Record 1968; 162:433-452.
Haspels AA. Interception: postcoital estrogens in 3,016 women. Contraception 1976; 14:375-381.
He CH, Shi YE, Liao DL, Zhu YH, Xu JQ, Matline SA, Vince PM, Fotherby K, Van Look PFA. Comparative cross-over pharmacokinetic study on two types of post-coital contraceptive tablets containing levonorgestrel. Contraception 1990; 41:557-567.
He CH, Shi YE, Xu JQ, Van Look PFA. A multicenter clinical study on two types of levonorgestrel tablets administered for postcoital contraception. International Journal of Gynecology & Obstetrics 1991; 36:43-48.
Hibbert ML, Hess DL, Stouffer RL, Wolf DP, Zelinski-Wooten MD. Midcycle administration of a progesterone synthesis inhibitor prevents ovulation in primates. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the USA 1996; 93:1897-1901.
Ho PC, Kwan MS. A prospective randomized comparison of levonorgestrel with the Yuzpe regimen in post-coital contraception. Human Reproduction 1993; 8:389-392.
Hunter RHF. Effect of progesterone on fertilization in the golden hamster. Journal of Reproduction & Fertility 1968; 16:499-502.
Hutchison JS, Kubik CJ, Nelson PB, Zeleznik AJ. Estrogen induces premature luteal regression in rhesus monkeys during spontaneous menstrual cycles, but not in cycles driven by exogenous gonadotropin-releasing hormone. Endocrinology 1987; 121:466-474.
Hutz RJ, Dierschke DJ, Wolf RC. Markers of astresia in ovarian follicular components from rhesus monkeys treated with estradiol-17 beta. Biology of Reproduction 1986; 34:65-70.
Hutz RJ, Dierschke DJ, Wolf RC. Estradiol-induced follicular atresia in rhesus monkey is not prevented by exogenous gonadotropins. American Journal of Primatology 1991; 23:247-255.
Kahlenborn C, Stanford JB, Larimore WL. Postfertilization effect of hormonal emergency contraception. Annals of Pharmacotherapy 2002; 36:465-470.
Karsch FJ, Sutton GP. An intra-ovarian site for the luteolytic action of estrogen in the rhesus monkey. Endocrinology 1976; 98:553-561.
Karsch FJ, Weick RF, Butler WR, Dierschke DJ, Weiss G, Hotchkiss J, Yamaji T, Knobil F. Induced LH surges in the rhesus monkey: strength-duration characteristics of the estrogen stimulus. Endocrinology 1973; 92:1740-1747.
Kesseru E, Camacho-Ortega P, Laudahn G, Schopflin G. In vitro action of progestogens on sperm migration in human cervical mucus. Fertility & Sterility 1975; 26:57-61.
Kesseru E, Garmendia F, Westphal N, Parada J. The hormonal and peripheral effects of DL-norgestrel in postcoital contraception. Contraception 1974; 10:411-424.
Kesseru E, Larrañaga A, Parada J. Postcoital contraception with dl-norgestrel. Contraception 1973; 7:367-379.
Kives S, Hahn PM, White E, Stanczyk FZ, Reid RL. Bioavailability of the Yuzpe and levonorgestrel regimens of emergency contraception: vaginal vs. oral administration. Contraception 2005; 71:197-201.
Kubba AA, White JO, Guillebaud J, Elder MG. The biochemistry of human endometrium after two regimens of postcoital contraception: a dl-norgestrel/ethinylestradiol combination or danazol. Fertility & Sterility 1986; 45:512-516.
Landgren BM, Johannisson E, Aedo AR, Kumar A, Shi YE. The effect of levonorgestrel administered in large doses at different stages of the cycle on ovarian function and endometrial morphology. Contraception 1989; 39:275-289.
Lehmann F, Just-Nastansky I, Behrendt B, Czygan PJ, Bettendorf G. Effect of post-ovulatory administered oestrogens on corpus luteum function. Acta Endocrinology 1975; 79:329-336.
Ling WY, Robichaud A, Zayid I, Wrixon W, MacLeod SC. Mode of action of dl-norgestrel and ethinylestradiol combination in postcoital contraception. Fertility & Sterility 1979; 32:297-302.
Ling WY, Wrixon W, Acorn T, Wilson E, Collins J. Mode of action of dl-norgestrel and ethinylestradiol combination in emergency contraception. III: Effect of preovulatory administration following the luteinizing hormone surge on ovarian steroidogenesis. Fertility & Sterility 1983; 40:631-636.
Ling WY, Wrixon W, Zayid I, Acorn T, Popat R, Wilson E. Mode of action of dl-norgestrel and ethinylestradiol combination in postcoital contraception. II. Effect of postovulatory administration on ovarian function and endometrium. Fertility & Sterility 1983; 39:292-297.
Marions L, Cekan SZ, Bygdeman M, Gemzell-Danielsson K. Effect of emergency contraception with levonorgestrel or mifepristone on ovarian function. Contraception 2004; 69:373-377.
Marions L, Hultenby K, Lindell I, Sun X, Stabi B, Danielsson KG, Emergency contraception with mifepristone and levonorgestrel: mechanism of action. Obstetrics & Gynecology 2002; 100:65-71.
Moggia A, Beauquis A, Ferrari F, Terrado ML, Alonso JL, Korembit F, Mischler T. The use of progestogens as postcoital oral contraceptives. Journal of Reproductive Medicine 1974; 13:58-61.
Morris ML. Mechanisms involved in progesterone contraception and estrogen interception. American Journal of Obstetrics & Gynecology 1973; 117:167-176.
Morris JML, van Wagenen G. Interception: the use of postovulatory estrogens to prevent implantation. American Journal of Obstetrics & Gynecology 1973; 115:101-106.
Müller AL, Llados CM, Croxatto HB. Postcoital treatment with levonorgestrel does not disrupt postfertilization events in the rat. Contraception 2003; 67:415-419.
Ngai SW, Fan S, Li S, Cheng L, Ding J, Jing X, Ng EHY, Ho PC. A randomized trial to compare 24 h versus 12 h double dose regimen of levonorgestrel for emergency contraception. Human Reproduction 2005; 20:307-311.
Nutting EF, Mares SE. Inhibition of fertilization in rabbits during treatment with progesterone. Biology of Reproduction 1970; 2:230-238.
Oguge NO, Barrell GK. Anti-fertility effects of oral medroxyprogesterone acetate in rabbits. Reproduction, Fertility & Development 1996; 8:1185-1192.
Okulicz WC, Balsamo M, Tast J. Progesterone regulation of endometrial estrogen receptor and cell proliferation during the late proliferative and secretory phase in artificial menstrual cycles in the rhesus monkey. Biology of Reproduction 1993; 49:24-32.
Ortiz ME, Ortiz RE, Fuentes MA, Parraguez VH, Croxatto HB. Post-coital administration of levonorgestrel does not interfere with post-fertilization events in the new world monkey Cebus apella. Human Reproduction 2004; 19:1352-1356.
Percival-Smith RK, Abercrombie B. Postcoital contraception with dl-norgestrel/ethinyl estradiol combination: six years experience in a student medical clinic. Contraception 1987; 36:287-293.
Piaggio G, von Hertzen H, Grimes DA, Van Look PFA. Timing of emergency contraception with levonorgestrel or the Yuzpe regimen. Lancet 1999; 353:721
Raymond EG, Lovely LP, Chen-Mok M, Seppala M, Kurman RJ, Lessey BA. Effect of the Yuzpe regimen of emergency contraception on markers of endometrial receptivity. Human Reproduction 2000; 15:2351-2355.
Raymond E, Taylor D, Trussell J, Steiner M. Minimum effectiveness of the levonorgestrel regimen of emergency contraception. Contraception 2004; 69:79-81.
Rodrigues I, Grou F, Joly J. Effectiveness of emergency contraceptive pills between 72 and 120 hours after unprotected sexual intercourse. American Journal of Obstetrics & Gynecology 2001; 184:531-537.
Rowlands S, Kubba AA, Guillebaud J, Bounds W. A possible mechanism of action of danazol and an ethinylestradiol/norgestrel combination used as postcoital contraceptive agents. Contraception 1986; 33:539-545.
Sanchez-Borrego R, Balasch J. Ethinyl estradiol plus dl-norgestrel or levonorgestrel in the Yuzpe method for post-coital contraception: results of an observational study. Human Reproduction 1996; 11:2449-2453.
Schoonmaker JN, Vickery W, Karsch FJ. A receptive period for estradiol-induced luteolysis in the rhesus monkey. Endocrinology 1981:108:1874-1879.
Shirley B, Bundren JC, McKinney S. Levonorgestrel as a postcoital contraceptive. Contraception 1995; 52:277-281.
Spies HG, Niswender GD. Blockade of the surge of preovulatory serum luteinizing hormone and ovulation with exogenous progesterone in cycling rhesus (Macaca mulatta) monkeys. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology 1971; 32:309-316.
Spona J, Matt K, Schneider WHF. Study on the action of dl-norgestrel as a post-coital contraceptive agent. Contraception 1975; 11:31-43.
Stirling A, Glasier A. Estimating the efficacy of emergency contraception – how reliable are the data? Contraception 2002; 66:19-22.
Swahn ML, Westlund P, Johannisson E, Bygdeman M. Effect of postcoital contraceptive methods on the endometrium and the menstrual cycle. Acta Obstetricia Gynecologica Scandinavia 1996; 75:738-744.
Task Force on Postovulatory Methods of Fertility Regulation. Efficacy and side effects of immediate postcoital levonorgestrel used repeatedly for contraception. Contraception 2000; 61:303-308.
Task Force on Postovulatory Methods of Fertility Regulation. Randomised controlled trial of levonorgestrel versus the Yuzpe regimen of combined oral contraceptives for emergency contraception. Lancet 1998; 352:428-433.
Taskin O, Brown RW, Young DC, Poindexter AN, Wiehle RD. High doses of oral contraceptives do not alter endometrial alpha 1 and alpha v beta 3 integrins in the late implantation window. Fertility & Sterility 1994; 61:850-855.
Trussell J, Ellertson C, Dorflinger L. Effectiveness of the Yuzpe regimen of emergency contraception by cycle day of intercourse: implications for mechanism of action. Contraception 2003; 67:161-171.
Trussell J, Ellertson C. Efficacy of emergency contraception. Fertility Control Review 1995; 4:8-11.
Trussell J, Ellertson C, Rodríguez G. The Yuzpe regimen of emergency contraception: how long after the morning after? Obstetrics & Gynecology 1996; 88:150-154.
Trussell J, Ellertson C, Stewart F. The effectiveness of the Yuzpe regimen of emergency contraception. Family Planning Perspectives 1996; 28:58-64, 87. [Errata in Family Planning Perspectives 1997; 29:60.]
Trussell J, Ellertson C, von Hertzen H, Bigrigg A, Webb A, Evans M, Ferden S, Leadbetter C. Estimating the effectiveness of emergency contraceptive pills. Contraception 2003; 67:259-265.
Trussell J, Raymond EG. Statistical evidence about the mechanism of action of the Yuzpe regimen of emergency contraception. Obstetrics & Gynecology 1999; 93:872-876.
Trussell J, Rodriguez G, Ellertson C. New estimates of the effectiveness of the Yuzpe regimen of emergency contraception. Contraception 1998; 57:363-369.
Trussell J, Rodriguez G, Ellertson C. Updated estimates of the effectiveness of the Yuzpe regimen of emergency contraception. Contraception 1999; 59:147-151.
Trussell J, Stewart F. The effectiveness of the Yuzpe regimen of emergency contraception. Family Planning Perspectives 1992; 24:262-264.
Ugocsai G, Resch B, Traub A, Sas M. Biological microscopic and scanning electron microscopic investigation of the effects of postinor/d-norgestrel in rabbits. Contraception 1984; 30:153-159.
United Nations Development Programme; United Nations Population Fund; World Health Organization;World Bank Special Programme of Research, Development and Research Training in
Human Reproduction; Task Force on Post-Ovulatory Methods of Fertility Regulation. Efficacy and side effects of immediate postcoital levonorgestrel used repeatedly for contraception. Contraception 2000; 61:303-308.
Van Santen MR, Haspels AA. A comparison of high-dose estrogens versus low-dose ethinylestradiol and norgestrel combination in postcoital interception: a study in 493 women. Fertility & Sterility 1985; 43:206-213.
Van Santen MR, Haspels AA. Interception II: postcoital low-dose estrogens and norgestrel combination in 633 women. Contraception 1985; 31:275-293.
von Hertzen H. Research on mifepristone and levonorgestrel in comparison with the Yuzpe regimen. Journal of the American Medical Women’s Association 1998; 53(Supplement 2):222-224.
von Hertzen H, Piaggio G, Ding J, Chen J, Song S, Bártfai G, Ng E, Gemzell-Danielsson K, Oyunbileg A, Wu S, Cheng W, Lüdicke F, Pretnar-Darovec A, Kirkman R, Mittal S, Khomassuridze A, Apter D, Peregoudov A. Low dose mifepristone and two regimens of levonorgestrel for emergency contraception: a WHO multicentre randomized trial. Lancet 2002; 360:1803-1810.
Webb AM, Russell J, Elstein M. Comparison of the Yuzpe regimen, danazol, and mifepristone (RU486) in oral postcoital contraception. British Medical Journal 1992; 305:927-931.
Westfahl PK, Kling OR. Relationship of estradiol to luteal function in the cycling baboon. Endocrinology 1982; 110:64-69.
Wilcox AJ, Dunson D, Baird DD. The timing of the ‘fertile window’ in the menstrual cycle: day specific estimates from a prospective study. British Medical Journal 2000; 321:1259-1262.
Wilcox AJ, Weinberg CR, Baird DD. Timing of sexual intercourse in relation to ovulation: effects on the probability of conception, survival of pregnancy, and sex of the baby. New England Journal of Medicine 1995; 333:1517-1521.
Wu S, Wang C, Wang Y, Cheng W, Zuo S, Li H, Xu X, Wang R, Dong J. A randomized double-blind, multicenter study on comparing levonorgestrel and mifepristone for emergency contraception. Journal of Reproductive Medicine 1999; 8(Supplement 1):43-46.
Yamaji T, Dierschke DJ, Hotchkiss J, Bhattacharya AN, Surve AH, Knobil E. Estrogen induction of LH release in the rhesus monkey. Endocrinology 1971; 89:1034-1041.
Young DC, Wiehle RD, Joshi SG, Poindexter AN. Emergency contraception alters progesterone-associated endometrial protein in serum and uterine luminal fluid. Obstetrics & Gynecology 1994; 84:266-271.
Yuzpe AA, Lancee WJ. Ethinylestradiol and dl-norgestrel as a postcoital contraceptive. Fertility & Sterility 1977; 28:932-936.
Yuzpe AA, Smith RP, Rademaker AW. A multicenter clinical investigation employing ethinyl estradiol combined with dl-norgestrel as postcoital contraceptive agent. Fertility & Sterility 1977; 28:932-936.
Yuzpe AA, Smith RP, Rademaker AW. A multicenter clinical investigation employing ethinyl estradiol combined with dl-norgestrel as postcoital contraceptive agent. Fertility & Sterility 1982; 37:508-513.
Yuzpe AA, Thurlow HJ, Ramzy I, Leyshon JI. Post coital contraception: a pilot study. Journal of Reproductive Medicine 1974; 13:53-58.
Zuliani G, Colombo UF, Molla R. Hormonal postcoital contraception with an ethinyl estradiol-norgestrel combination and two danazol regimens. European Journal of Obstetrics, Gynecology & Reproductive Biology 1990; 37:253-260.

3. Side Effects, Drug Interactions, and Health Concerns
[This section contains 37 citations.]

American College of Obstetricians & Gynecologists, Committee on Gynecologic Practice. Contraceptives and congenital anomalies: ACOG committee opinion. International Journal of Gynaecology & Obstetrics 1993; 42:316-317.
Arowojolu AO, Okewole IA, Adekunle AO. Comparative evaluation of the effectiveness and safety of two regimens of levonorgestrel for emergency contraception in Nigerians. Contraception 2002; 66:269-273.
Bacic M, Wesselius de Casparis A, Diczfalusy E. Failure of large doses of ethinyl estradiol to interfere with early embryonic development in the human species. American Journal of Obstetrics & Gynecology 1970; 107:531-534.
Bracken MB. Oral contraception and congenital malformations in offspring: a review and meta-analysis of the prospective studies. Obstetrics & Gynecology 1990; 76:552-557
Breckenridge AM, Back DJ, Orme M. Interactions between oral contraceptives and other drugs. Pharmacology & Therapeutics 1979; 7:617-626.
Dickinson BD, Altman RD, Nielsen NH, Sterling ML. Drug interactions between oral contraceptives and antibiotics. Obstetrics & Gynecology 2001; 98:853-860.
Fabunmi L, Perks N. Caesarean section scar ectopic pregnancy following postcoital contraception. Journal of Family Planning & Reproductive Health Care 2002; 28:155-156.
Glasier A. Safety of emergency contraception. Journal of the American Medical Women’s Association 1998; 53(Supplement 2):219-221.
Geurts TB, Goorissen EM, Sitsen JM. Summary of Drug Interactions with Oral Contraceptives. New York: Parthenon, 1993.
Hamoda H, Ashok PW, Stalder C, Flett GM, Kennedy E, Templeton A. A randomized trial of mifepristone (10 mg) and levonorgestrel for emergency contraception. Obstetrics & Gynecology 2004; 104:1307-1313.
Hapangama D, Glasier AF, Baird DT. The effects of peri-ovulatory administration of levonorgestrel on the menstrual cycle. Contraception 2001; 63:123-129.
Harrison-Woolrych ML, Woolley J. Progestin-only emergency contraception and ectopic pregnancy. [editorial] Journal of Family Planning & Reproductive Health Care 2003; 29:5-6.
Jian Z, Linan C. Ectopic gestation following emergency contraception with levonorgestrel. European Journal of Contraception & Reproductive Health Care 2003; 8:225-228.
Morris JM, van Wagenen G. Compounds interfering with ovum implantation and development. III. The role of estrogens. American Journal of Obstetrics & Gynecology 1966; 96: 804-815.
Nielsen CL, Miller L. Ectopic gestation following emergency contraceptive pill administration. Contraception 2000; 62:275-276.
Ragan RE, Rock RW, Buck HW. Metoclopramide pretreatment attenuates emergency contraceptive-associated nausea. American Journal of Obstetrics & Gynecology 2003; 188:330-333.
Raman-Wilms L, Tseng AL, Wighardt S, Einarson TR, Koren G. Fetal genital effects of first-trimester hormone exposure: a meta-analysis. Obstetrics & Gynecology 1995; 85:141-149.
Raymond EC, Creinin MD, Barnhart KT, Lovvorn AE, Rountree RW, Trussell J. Meclizine for prevention of nausea associated with use of emergency contraceptive pills: a randomized trial. Obstetrics & Gynecology 2000; 95:271-277.
Raymond EG, Goldberg A, Trussell J, Hays M, Roach E, Taylor D. Bleeding patterns after use of levonorgestrel emergency contraceptive pills. Contraception 2006; 73:376-381.
Sheffer-Mimouni G, Pauzner D, Maslovitch S, Lessing JB, Gamzu R. Ectopic pregnancies following emergency levonorgestrel contraception. Contraception 2003; 67:267-269.
Shenfield GM. Drug interactions with oral contraceptive preparations. Medical Journal of Australia 1986; 144:205-211.
Shochet T, Blanchard K, King H, Henchcliffe B, Hunt J, McCaig C, Weaver K, Stirling A, Glasier A, Webb A, Ellertson C. Side effects of the Yuzpe regimen of emergency contraception and two modifications. Contraception 2004; 69:301-307.
Simpson JL, Phillips OP. Spermicides, hormonal contraception and congenital malformations. Advances in Contraception 1990; 6:141-167.
Swahn ML, Westlund P, Johannisson E, Bygdeman M. Effect of postcoital contraceptive methods on the endometrium and the menstrual cycle. Acta Obstetricia Gynecologica Scandinavia 1996; 75:738-744.
Szoka PR, Edgren RA. Drug interactions with oral contraceptives: compilation and analysis of an adverse experience report database. Fertility & Sterility 1988; 49:31S-38S.
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4. Women’s Knowledge, Attitudes, and Behavior related to Emergency Birth Control Pills
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5. Health Services and Access to Emergency Birth Control Pills
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Pillsbury B, Coeytaux F, Johnston A. From Secret to Shelf: How Collaboration Is Bringing Emergency Contraception to Women. Los Angeles: Pacific Institute for Women’s Health, 1999.
Priddy A, Reed B. A survey of a hospital based out-of-hours emergency contraceptive service. British Journal of Family Planning 1996; 21:139-141.
Program for Appropriate Technology in Health. Emergency Contraception: Client Materials for Diverse Audiences. Seattle, WA: 1998.
Raine T, Harper C, Leon K, Darney P. Emergency contraception: advance provision in a young, high-risk clinic population. Obstetrics & Gynecology 2000; 96:1-7.
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Raymond EG, Dalebout SM, Camp SI. Comprehension of a prototype over-the-counter label for an emergency contraceptive pill product. Obstetrics & Gynecology 2002; 100:342-349.
Raymond EG, Spruyt A, Bley K, Colm J, Cross S, Robbins LA. The North Carolina DIAL EC project: increasing access to emergency contraceptive pills by telephone. Contraception 2004; 69:367-372.
Reproductive Health Alliance. Emergency Contraception: the UK Experience. [No. 1] London: Author, 2001.
Roberts RN, Moohan JM, McNeill S, Lyons MS. Audit of an emergency contraception service. British Journal of Family Planning 1995; 21:22-25.
Rogala C, Anzén B. Late start for emergency contraception in Sweden. Planned Parenthood in Europe 1995; 24:15-17.
Rosenberg KD, DeMunter JK, Liu J. Emergency contraception in emergency departments in Oregon, 2003. American Journal of Public Health 2005; 95:1453-1457.
Rothschild TJ. Switching emergency contraception to over-the-counter status. New England Journal of Medicine 2003; 348:82-83.
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Rowlands S. A two-year audit of emergency contraception in a general practice. British Journal of Family Planning 1991; 17:23-24.
Schwarz EB, Saint M, Gildengorin G, Weitz TA, Stewart FH, Sawaya GF. Cervical cancer screening continues to limit provision of contraception. Contraception 2005; 72:179-181.
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6. General Overviews, Cost Studies, & Miscellaneous Studies
[This section contains 29 citations.]

A. General Overview (12 citations):

Alford SA. Emergency Contraceptive Pills: the Word from Medical Professionals [From Research to Practice] Columbia SC: South Carolina Emergency Contraception Initiative, 2006.
Brown SS, Eisenberg L (editors), Institute of Medicine. The Best Intentions: Unintended Pregnancy and the Well-Being of Children & Families. Washington, DC: National Academy Press, 1995.
Duncan G, Harper C, Ashwell E, Mant D, Buchan H, Jones L. Termination of pregnancy: lessons for prevention. British Journal of Family Planning 1990; 15:112-117.
Glasier A. Emergency postcoital contraception. New England Journal of Medicine 1997; 337:1058-1064.
Grimes DA, Raymond EG. Emergency contraception. Annals of Internal Medicine 2002; 137:180-189.
Johnston TA, Howie PW. Potential use of postcoital contraception to prevent unwanted pregnancy. British Medical Journal 1985; 290:1040-1041.
Senanayake P. Emergency contraception: the International Planned Parenthood Federation’s experience. International Family Planning Perspectives 1996; 29:15-19, 24.
Stewart F, Trussell J, Van Look PFA. Emergency contraception. In: Hatcher RA, et al (editors) Contraceptive Technology, 18th revised edition. New York: Ardent Media, 2004.
Trussell J, Stewart F, Guest F, Hatcher RA. Emergency contraceptive pills: a simple proposal to reduce unintended pregnancies. Family Planning Perspectives 1992; 24:269-273.
Van Look P, von Hertzen H. Emergency contraception. British Medical Bulletin 1993; 49:158-170.
Wertheimer RE. Emergency postcoital contraception. American Family Physician 2000; 62:2287-2292.
Westley E. Emergency contraception: a global overview. Journal of the American Medical Women’s Association 1998; 53(Supplement 2):215-218, 237.

B. Cost Studies (seven citations):

Trussell J, Calabretto H. Cost savings from use of emergency contraceptive pills in Australia. Australia New Zealand Journal of Obstetrics & Gynaecology 2005; 45:308-311.
Trussell J, Koenig J, Ellertson C, Stewart F. Preventing unintended pregnancy: the cost-effectiveness of three methods of emergency contraception. American Journal of Public Health 1997; 87:932-937.
Trussell J, Koenig J, Stewart F, Darroch JE. Medical care cost savings from adolescent contraceptive use. Family Planning Perspectives 1997; 29:248-255, 295.
Trussell J, Leveque JA, Koenig JD, London R, Borden S, Henneberry J, LaGuardia KD, Stewart F, Wilson TG, Wysocki S, Strauss M. The economic value of contraception: a comparison of 15 methods. American Journal of Public Health 1995; 85:494-503.
Trussell J, Shochet T. Cost-effectiveness of emergency contraceptive pills in the public sector in the USA. Expert Review of Pharmacoeconomic & Outcomes Research 2003; 3:433-440.
Trussell J, Stewart F, Raymond EG. Emergency Contraception: A Last Chance to Prevent Unintended Pregnancy. Princeton, NJ: Office of Population Research, Princeton University, February 2008 Available online at http://ec.princeton.edu/questions/ec-review.pdf
Trussell J, Wiebe E, Shochet T, Guilbert E. Cost savings from emergency contraceptive pills in Canada. Obstetrics & Gynecology 2001; 97:789-793.

C. Miscellaneous Studies (10 citations):

Glasier A, Fairhurst K, Wyke S, Ziebland S, Seaman P, Walker J, Lakha F. Advanced provision of emergency contraception does not reduce abortion rates. Contraception 2004; 69:361-366.
Government Printing Office. OPRR reports: protection of human subjects. Code of Federal Regulations 45CFR 46; 1983.
Hatcher RA, Trussell J, Stewart F, Howelss S, Russell CR, Kowal D. Emergency Contraception: The Nation’s Best Kept Secret. Decatur, GA: Bridging the Gap Communications, 1995.
Hughes EC (editor), Committee on Terminology, American College of Obstetricians & Gynecologists. Obstetric-Gynecologic Terminology. Philadelphia, PA :FA Davis, 1972.
Johnson J. The Difference between Emergency Contraception Pills and Medication Abortion [Fact Sheet] New York: Planned Parenthood Federation of America, 2006.
Lewis C, Wood C, Randall S. Unplanned pregnancy: is contraceptive failure predictable? British Journal of Family Planning 1996; 22:16-19.
Pruitt SL, Mullen PD. Contraception or abortion? Inaccurate descriptions of emergency contraception in newspaper articles, 1992-2002. Contraception 2005; 71:14-21.
Santelli J, Rochat R, Hatfield-Timajchy K, Gilbert BC, Curtis K, Cabral R, Hirsch JS, Schieve L, Unintended Pregnancy Working Group. The measurement and meaning of unintended pregnancy. Perspectives on Sexual & Reproductive Health 2003; 35:94-101.
Simmonte M, Reid L, Burry J. Encouraging safe sex: the development of a pill/condom pack. British Journal of Family Planning 1996; 22:139-141.
Wilcox AJ, Weinberg CR, Baird DD. Timing of sexual intercourse in relation to ovulation: effects on the probability of conception, survival of pregnancy, and sex of the baby. New England Journal of Medicine 1995; 333:1517-1521.

Compiled by Sue Alford for the South Carolina Emergency Contraception Initiative,
September 2006